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a building code is a set of regulations that governs the details of construction. Its purpose is to ensure that buildings are structurally sound and safe from fire and health hazards. Most locations have one or more building codes. The only exceptions are some rural areas.

Building codes establish minimum standards of quality and safety. A builder can construct a house that is better than what the code requires. Many builders who have a reputation for high quality work do this. However, a builder may not construct a house that falls short of the code requirements. During construction, a building inspector visits the project at various times to ensure that the building codes are being followed.

Model building codes

Local building codes are usually based on model building codes. A model building code is a set of regulations developed by an independent organization on which local governments can base their own building codes. For many years, there were three major model building codes. They set a minimum standard for residential construction. The national building code is published by the building officials and code administrators international. The standard building code is published by the Southern building code Congress international. The uniform building code is published by the international conference of building officials.

there are also opportunities for employment in businesses that serve the construction industry. Many people sell or service tools and equipment. Others supply building materials. Some check for building code enforcement. Still others design, repair, or evaluate new products.

College can prepare you for many professional careers related to construction. These include architect, project engineer, and teacher at a trade or vacation school.

Management opportunities in the construction industry are also open to individuals with appropriate work experience, training, and education. For example, the management of a large construction project is the job of a construction supervisor, or construction administrator. This person schedules workers and inspections and arranges for the delivery of materials.

some careers in building construction require additional training and education at a technical Institute or community college. Examples include architectural drafter, estimator, and purchasing agent. A drafter works on the building plans. An estimator figures the cost of a project. A purchasing agent buys materials according to current needs.

workers in the building crafts (trades) represent the largest group of skilled workers in the United States. There are more than two dozen skilled building crafts, and carpenters are the largest group. Carpenters erect the wood framework of a building. The install molding, paneling, cabinets, and doors. They build stairs in lay floors.

Members of the building trades often have a high level of skill learned through experience or training. In Union, for example, a worker in the crafts may begin as an apprentice. A journey level worker has an intermediate level of skill. The highest level is that of master.

Construction craft work is sometimes grouped into three classifications: structural, Finish, and mechanical. Occupations concerned mainly with structural work include Carpenter, brick layer, and cement mason. Finish work is done by painters, Glazer's, and roofers. Occupations involving mechanical work include Plumber and the construction electrician. Many of these workers work outdoors. In some regions, the work tends to be seasonal.

construction involves both the creation of new structures and repair or modification of existing structures. Construction can be divided into general building construction, heavy construction, and special trades construction. General building construction deals with residential, industrial, and commercial buildings. Sewers, roads, and bridges are examples of heavy construction. Workers in a special trades include carpenters, plumbers, electricians, painters, and others.

Most construction is overseen by a general contractor, who is legally responsible for the entire project. However, general contractors may subcontract part of the work to heavy construction or special trades contractors.

Whatever the area or type of construction, workers must have a high school diploma. They must also be in good physical condition, be willing to learn new skills, and be willing to work under a variety of conditions. More than 60% of construction jobs are within specialty contractors, and many construction workers are also self-employed.

The construction industry

The construction industry employs over 6 million people in the United States. The industry builds residential and commercial buildings, among other things. Residential buildings include houses and apartments. Commercial buildings include office in government buildings, schools, and hospitals. Employment in construction is cyclical -- it rises and falls with the economy.

To advancing construction, you need to obtain training, education, and work experience. Employees who take pride in the quality of their work will find many rewarding opportunities. Someone with a carpenters license can advance to construction superintendent. The graduate of a technical school may start as a drafter and become a project manager. A system architect may work up to a full professional status.

Construction education and training

A high school education is a solid foundation on which to build a construction career. Learning excellent communication skills -- reading, writing, listening, and speaking -- is critical. That, plus mathematics, will teach you the basics you'll need for any job. Courses in science will broaden your understanding of construction methods and materials. You can also take technical education courses and join in activities such as skills USA/VICA (vocational industrial clubs of America).

Another way to learn about the industry is through a part time, entry level job in construction operation. An entry-level position, such as a carpenters helper, requires little or no training or experience. You learn on the job. However, many carpenters learn their trade through formal programs. These include certificate programs, apprenticeships, degree programs, and military training programs.

Certificates

Many community colleges offer certificate programs. These often involved work experience, coursework, and a certification test. Obtaining certification, or proof of skill, in any area of construction makes you more employable. Certification is available in several areas, such as building code enforcement, framing carpentry, and construction supervision.

Before enrolling, carefully evaluate the program and the reputation of the school or operation. Find out what jobs are available for people with that particular certificate. Remember, certification programs usually focus on particular skills. Advancement opportunities may require that you obtain more formal education.

Apprenticeships

And apprentice works under the guidance of a skilled worker to learn a particular trade. In the construction industry, and apprentice Carpenter learns under an experienced Carpenter. An apprenticship involves a combination of hands-on training and classroom instruction. Programs vary in length.

Professional organizations and industry associations often operate apprenticeship programs. These include the United brotherhood of Carpenters and joiners of America and the national Association of home builders.

Associates degrees

Many colleges and universities offer two-year, or associates, degrees in the construction field. They provide hands-on experience that you can apply the techniques you've learned in the classroom.. Evaluate the program, the school's credentials, and the employment rate for graduates before making a decision.

Bachelors degrees

Four year, or bachelors degree, programs offer a well-rounded education. They begin with general courses in science and the humanities. They also provide in-depth training in one or more areas that prepare students for supervisory and management positions. General degrees in subjects such as marketing, business, and management provide the basis for learning a wide range of skills and information.

Students may be able to take part in a cooperative education or work experience program at the same time. Students are matched with their company whose business is related to their interests.

Military training

The military offers training in many specialties in the construction trades. They include carpentry specialist, electrician, and plumber. Individuals with training in these areas leave the military with the skills needed to find good jobs in civilian life.

On the job training

On-the-job training is another option. Some construction managers use a method call job rotation. Entry-level workers are rotated through a series of jobs, which allows them to learn a variety of skills. This is similar to cross training.

Internships are another form of on-the-job training. They combine classroom instruction and work experience. Many people benefit from finding a mentor -- someone at work whom they can talk to who is willing to guide them.

Abstract of title-a history of the deeds and other papers affecting the ownership of the property.

Acclamation-a condition that occurs when Wood reaches a moisture content equal to that inside the building where it is installed

Acoustic ceiling-a ceiling consisting of panels glued directly to the ceiling surface or stapled to wood-furring strips nailed to the ceiling joists.

ACQ-a chemical compound used to treat wood. Wood treated with ACQ does not contain arsenic.

Admixture-an ingredient other than cement, aggregate, or water that is added to a concrete mixture to change its physical or chemical characteristics.

Aggregate-granular material, such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone.

Allen wrench-a hexagonal steel bar with a shank that fits inside a hexagon recess in the top of a screw.

Allowance-a dollar figure representing the cost of products that have not yet been chosen when a detailed estimate is made.

Americans with disabilities act(ADA)-legislation that contains provisions regarding new construction. The design of public buildings and certain multifamily dwellings must meet these provisions to ensure that the building is accessible to people who have disabilities.

Amperage-a measure of the strength of an electric current expressed in amperes, or amps.

Ampere-a measure of electrical current. Often referred to as a amp.

Anchor bolt-a bolt, usually L. shaped, used in wood frame construction to securely fasten the sill plate to the foundation.

Annual rings-rings visible in a cross-section of a tree stump. In temperate climates, the tree adds one annual ring during each year of growth. Most annual rings consist of a light band formed in the spring and dark band formed in the summer.

Apprentice-a person who works under the guidance of a skilled worker to learn a particular trade. In the construction industry, an apprentice carpenter learns under an experienced carpenter.

Apron-in a window, a Finish member below the stool.

Architects scale-a measuring instrument that allows the measurements in reduced scale drawings to be measured in feet and inches.

Architectural plans-a set of more formal drawing showing more precisely how an entire structure should be built.

Armored cable-Hollow cable with a flexible metal exterior. Individual insulated conductors are contained within the cable. Also called BX.

Articulated ladder- folding ladder that can be adjusted to fit into such spots as stairwells.

Asbestosis-a medical condition that can occur when asbestos fibers are inhaled or swallowed. This can cause scarring of the lungs and various types of cancer.

Awning window-a window in which the sash swings outward at the bottom.

Axial load-the load carried along the length of a structural member.

B

Backerboard-cement based sheets, they provide an excellent base for tile, particularly on floors and in wet installations. Often called cement board.

Backfilling-the process of filling in the excavated area around a foundation with dirt.

Backing the hip-beveling the upper edge of the hip rafter. This allows the roof sheeting to be installed without hitting the corners of the hip rafter.

Back priming-priming the back surface of the board on the site if the siding has not been primed on all surfaces by the manufacturer.

Backsaw-a fine tooth crosscut saw with a heavy metal band across the back that strengthens the blade.

Balloon frame construction-framing in which the studs run from the sill unattached to the foundation to the top plate of the second floor. Also called balloon framing.

Baluster-a slender vertical member that supports the handrail.

Bar clamp-a clamp with a stationary head, a sliding tail stop, and adjustable screw assembly, all mounted on a flat bar.

Baseboard-a board or molding used against the bottom of walls to cover their joint with the floor. It serves as a transition between the wall surface and the floor. It also covers the gaps that often occur at this location. Also called base molding.

Batter board-a board fastened horizontally to stakes placed to the outside of where the corners of a building will be located. These boards and string are tied between them to locate and mark the outline of the building.

Battery pack-battery sealed with a plastic case inside or at the end of the handle of a portable power tool, such as a drill.

Bearing wall-a wall that supports loads in addition to its own weight.

Bed joint-a horizontal mortar joint.

Benchmark-a basic starting point from which measurements in a building layout can be made using a transit or level also called a point of reference.

Bevel cut-a cut made at an angle through the thickness of a board or panel. Most saws can be adjusted to make bevel cuts and angles between 45 and 90°.

Bid-a signed proposal to do work and/or supply a material for a specified price.

Binder-a resin that holds particles of pigment together.

Bird's mouth-a notch made in a rafter with an overhang so that the rafter will fit against a plate.

Biscuit-a small flat piece of compressed wood glued into crescent shaped grooves to form a joint with another work piece in which matching grooves have been cut. The crescent shaped grooves are cut by a portable power to tool called a plate Joiner or biscuit joiner.

Bisque-a piece of tile without glaze.

Blind nailing-driving nails at an angle through the tongue of the board and into framing or furring strips. It allows subsequent boards to conceal the nail heads.

Blind nailing system-a hidden fastening system used by many deck builders in which the fasteners do not show.

Block plane-a small plane with a blade that cuts bevel side up.

Board foot-a unit of measure that represents a piece of lumber having a flat surface area of 1 square foot and a thickness of 1 inch nominal size.

Bottom plate-the plate that ties the bottom ends of the studs together. It also provides a nailing surface for the bottom edge of wall coverings and wall sheathing. Also called the sole plate.

Box cornice-exterior trim that entirely encloses the rafter details. It is built on roof sheathing, fascia and a soffit.

Box extender-a metal or plastic fitting that is screwed to the front of the outlet box, bringing it forward.

Box joint utility pliers-large pliers with a slip joint at four or more positions.

Box sill-a type of sill consisting of a sill plate (also called a mudsill, or just the sill) that is anchored to the foundation wall, floor joists and rim joist and subflooring.

Box wrench-a metal wrench with two enclosed ends.

Brace-a vertical or diagonal length of 2 x 4 or 2 x 6 lumber that stiffens or supports an individual rafter at midspan. One end is nailed to the rafter. The other end is nailed to the wall framing below the rafter.

Brick mold-thick wood molding permanently attached to the outer edges of the jambs. Also called brick molding.

Brick tongs-a metal tool that clamps over a row of six to 11 bricks. The lever action of the handle holds the bricks in place. When the handle is lowered, the bricks are released.

Brick veneer siding-a layer of brick used for part or all of the exterior covering over wood framed walls.

Bridging-a method of bracing between joists. It is done to distribute loads, prevent the joists from twisting, and add stability and stiffness.

Building code-a set of regulations that governs the details of construction.

Building paper-heavyweight paper combined with asphalt that comes in Rolls 36 inches wide.

Building permit-a formal, printed authorization for the builder to begin construction.

Business plan-a document that gives specific information about the business, including a vision, goals, strategies, and plan of action.

Butt edge-the exposed edge of the shingle.

Butt wall-a wall that sits between the by walls.

By wall-a wall that runs from the outside edge of the subfloor at one end of the building to the outside edge of the subfloor at the opposite end.

C

Camber-a slight upward curve in a glulam beam. The beam is installed with the curve oriented up.

Cambium-a layer of living tissue that produces new wood, called Sapwood, along the inner surface of the bark of a tree.

Cantilever-a supporting member that projects into space and is itself supported at only one end.

Carcase-an assembly of panels that forms a Cabinets basic shape.

Carpenters Level- a Long wood, metal, or fiber glass instrument was several gloss leveling Vials. Sometimes called a spirit level. Some levels measure electronically instead.

Casement window-a window with a side hinged sash that swings inward or outward.

Casing-the basic molding around a window or door.

Certificate of occupancy(CO)- a document issued after the house is finally been inspected stating the house is ready for occupancy.

Certification-written proof of a skill.

Chair-a small device that supports the wire fabric at a particular height as concrete is poured.

Chair rail-a molding that runs horizontally across walls at three to 4 feet from the floor.

Chalk line- powdered chalk and a real of string in a steel or plastic case.

Chamfer-a beveled edge. Also a bit that is used to produce a beveled edge.

Change order-a document signed by the builder and the client that exactly describes the changes to be made after construction has begun and estimates the cost for extra work.

Chord-the top or bottom outer member of the truss.

Circuit-an electrical cable or group of cables that supplies electricity to a specific area.

Claw hammer-a hammer with a curved claw.

Cleat Stringer stairway-the simplest stairway, having two stringers and a series of plank treads.

Clinching-the process of joining two layers of steel with pressure in still frame construction. A powder clinching tool is used.

Clip angle-a small piece of angle iron attached to a structural member to accept a structural load.

Closed cornice-exterior trim hanging on a house with no rafter overhang. It is seldom used on newer houses because of the difficulty in providing attic ventilation.

Closed Valley-the roof covering in a roof Valley laid so the flashing is not visible. Also called a woven Valley.

Closure block-the block that fills the final gap in a course between corners.

Cold chisel-a tool-steel chisel with a hardened and tempered edge for cutting metal.

Cold joint-the joint occurring where the fresh concrete is poured on top of or next to concrete that has already begun to cure.

Cold formed steel-sheet steel that is bent and formed without using heat. Such steel is used for residential steel framing.

Collar tie-a horizontal framing member that prevents opposing rafter pairs from spreading apart. It also prevents the rafters from bowing inward when weight is placed upon them.

Collated fasteners-fasteners arranged into strips or rolls, with each fastener connected to the fasteners on either side.

Collet-the part of a router that holds the bit.

Combination square-a handle with a blade that slides along its handle or head.

Common different-Gable in studs have the same on center spacing as standard wall studs. However, each stud is a different length than the studs on either side. Their differences and length are based on a single figure that depends on the pitch of the roof. This figure is called the common difference.

Composite decking-synthetic decking material made from a blend of recycled plastic and wood dust or fibers.

Composite panel product- a panel product made from pieces of wood mixed with adhesive.

Compound bevel cut-a cut made when a bevel is added to a minor cut.

Concrete masonry unit-any hollow masonry unit, such as concrete block.

Conditioning-in working with paneling, placing the paneling in the work area before work begins to allow it to adjust to the temperature and humidity of the room.

Conductor-a material that allows electricity to flow through it readily.

Coniferous tree-a tree that produces seeds in cones and has needlelike or scale like leaves. Soft woods come from coniferous trees.

Connection plate-a pre-punched metal plate with stamped teeth. It is pressed into the wood under hydraulic pressure to the supply joint on each side.

Construction loan-a short-term loan used to pay expenses during construction.

Construction specifications Institute-a professional association that develop standards for writing specifications.

Continuous joist-a joist that spans the entire floor opening. The x’s are all on the same side of the joists location marks.

Contract of sell-a document that usually describes all the details relating to the purchase.

Contractor saw-a power saw in which the motor is perpendicular to the blade. The blade is usually mounted on the right side of the motor and driven by a spindle connected directly to it. Sometimes called a Sidewinder.

Control joint-in a concrete slab, a joint that helps to minimize random cracks. In a wall, a joint that controls movement caused by stress.

Coping-the process of shaping inside corner joints between trim members by cutting the end of one member to fit against the face of the other.

Coping saw-a solid U-shaped frame having a Deep Throat.

Corbel- a course of brick offset to extend past the course below it.

Corner bead-a vinyl galvanized metal strip that reinforces and protects the corner. It comes in lengths of eight and 10 feet. Standard corner beads forms a square 90° corner. Most corner beads form a rounded 90° corner.

Corner post-and assembly of full-length studs at the corner of a building. A corner post is usually built from three or more studs to provide greater strength.

Cornice-the exterior trim of the structure consisting of fascia, a soffit, and various types of molding.

Cornice return-the continuation of a cornice. Its construction depends on how the cornice is built and how far the rake projects beyond the side walls.

Corporation-a business organization created when a state grants an individual or a group of people a charter with legal rights. The owners buy shares, or parts of the company. These owners, called shareholders, earn a profit based on the number of shares they own. If the business fails, the owners lose the money they have invested in the business.

Countersink-a bit with beveled cutting edges. It creates a funnel shaped the top of a drilled hole. This funnel shape allows the head of a wood screw to be flush with the wood surface.

Cripple stud-a stud that does not extend all the way from the bottom plate of the top plate, due to an opening in the wall. Also called a cripple.

Critical Path method-a method of scheduling that shows the relationships among tasks as well as how long each task takes.

Crosscut-a cut made across the grain of a board.

Crown-the outermost curve of the bow. Any joists having a slight edge-wise bow should always be placed with a crown on top.

Crown molding-a fairly large strong molding that usually includes both curved and angular surfaces. It is angled away from the wall and ceiling surfaces, and its back is not in contact with either of them.

Cut back mastic-mastic that has been thined slightly with a solvent.

Cuts-the several standings made in finishing a new floor.

Cut stringer stairway-a stairway in which the treads and risers are attached to notches on into the upper edge of each stringer.

Cutter head-a solid metal cylinder on a jointer in which three or fou cutting knives are mounted. The Cutter head is mounted below the bed of the machine. As the Cutter head spins, the knives shave off small chips of wood, producing a smooth surface.

Cutting plane-a floor plan is included for each level of the building. Each plan drawn as if the house was sliced horizontally at a level that would include all doors and window openings. This imaginary slicing is referred to as a cutting plane.

D

Dead load-the total weight of the building. This includes the structural frame and anything permanently attached, such as wall coverings, cabinets, and roof shingles.

Deciduous tree-a tree that sheds its leaves annually during cold or very dry seasons. Hardwoods are cut from broad leave, deciduous trees.

Deed-the document that shows evidence of ownership.

Deed restrictions-restrictions that specify such things as the minimum size house that can be built on a lot, requirements for certain architectural features, and setback distances.

Design value-a number assigned to indicate how well each wood resists stresses.

Detail drawing-a drawing used when precise information is needed about a small or complex portion of the building. Such drawings are used whenever the information given in elevations, plans, and sections is not clear enough. The construction at doors, windows, and it needs is often shown in detail drawings. Details are drawn at larger scales than plan views, such as half-inch equals a foot, three quarters equals a foot, 1 inch equals a foot, or inch and one quarter equals a foot.

D head nail-a nail used only with nailers. Part of the head has been removed giving it a d-shape. This allows the nails to be packed closely together. Also called a clipped nail.

Dimensions-numbers that give the size of something.

Direct costs-costs related to a certain construction project. They include such costs as those for labor, materials, building permits, temporary power hookups, and some types of insurance. Also called project costs.

Doghouse dormer-a gabled dormer with the side walls that protrude horizontally outward from a sloping roof and has its own gabled ends.

Door frame-the assembly around a door. It is attached to the wall framing consisting of two side jambs and a head jamb.

Dormer-an upright window projection on a roof that adds light and ventilation to second-floor rooms or the attic.

Double nailing-placing a second mail within 2 inches of the first for added holding power.

Double plate-a second top plate nailed to the first plate after the walls are erected.

Double hung window-a window consisting of an upper and lower sash that slide up and down in channels in the side jambs.

Dovetail joint-a joint having interlocking pieces. Dovetail joints are used to assemble the drawers and high-quality cabinetry.

Dovetail saw-a saw that is similar to a back saw, but having a blade that is narrower and thinner and with very fine teeth.

Draft-the upward movement of air within a closed space, such as a chimney. Drafts draw air in, aiding in the combustion and expelling of smoke and harmful gases.

Drain field-a filtering area within a septic system into which liquid wastes flow. A drain field contains a network of perforated pipes embedded in sand and gravel.

Dressed sizes-lumber sizes that apply after the wood has shrunk and been surfaced with a planing machine. The width and the thickness of dressed lumber are considerably less than its nominal width and thickness.

Drill Index-a case that holds a group of twist bits in various sizes.

Drip edge-metal edging or flashing that conducts water a way from the eave’s and cornice.

Dropping the hip-deepening the birds mouth to bring the top edge of the hip rafter in line with the upper ends of the jacks.

Dry set mortar-a mortar made from a mixture of Portland cement, sand, and additives that strengthen the bond.

Duplex head nail-a nail with a double head.

Dutch hip roof-a hip roof with a small gable at each end near the top. Like a hip roof, it has an even overhang around the entire building.

E

Eaves-those portions of a roof that project beyond the walls.

Edging-using a brush to paint into the corners between large flat surfaces, where a roller cannot reach.

Electrical circuit-the circuit produced when electricity flows from a point of origin and returns to that point of origin through a conductor.

Electrical plan-a plan drawn like a simplified floor plan showing the location and type of every electrical feature of the building. These include switches, ceiling lights, receptacles, and the service panel. It also indicates a schematic view of the electrical wiring that connects individual features to each other.

Elevation-a side view that allows you to see the height of objects.

Emissivity-a number symbolizing how much radiation something is emitting.

Engineered lumber-any manufactured product made of solid wood, wood veneer, wood pieces, or wood fibers in which the components have been bonded together with adhesives.

Engineered panel-any manufactured sheet product, including plywood, made of wood or wood pieces bonded with natural or synthetic adhesive.

Entrepreneur-a person who creates and runs his or her own business.

Ergonomics-the science of designing and arranging things to suit the needs of the human body.

Estimator-an individual who figures the costs of a project.

Ethics-your inner guideline for telling right from wrong.

Excavation-a cut, cavity, trench, or depression made by removing earth. Excavations are dug to prepare the site for footings, foundations, and the installation of pipes for site drainage.

Expansion joint-a gap between portions of concrete that is filled with a flexible material. The concrete is thus able to expanding contract without damage to itself or two adjacent surfaces.

Exposure-the amount of surface exposed to the weather.

Extension ladder-a common type of straight ladder that can be adjusted to various lengths.

F

Face frame cabinet-a cabinet having a face frame that fits around the front carcase opening, thus providing a mounting surface for hinges and drawer hardware.

Face nailing-a nailing technique in which a nail is driven straight through the thickness of the lumber and into another piece.

Facing brick-brick used primarily for exposed exterior surfaces such as veneer walls.

Fascia-a board nailed to the ends of the rafter tails. It protects the end grain of the rafters and serves as a mounting surface for the gutters.

Featherboard-a piece of stock with a series of long-sought curves on one end. It is used to hold narrow stock against a rip fence when making a rip cut with a table saw.

Feathering-in taping drywall joints, the process of smoothing the outer edges of the joint compound so that there are no ridges. In using a screw gun, the process of attaching a screw to the bit without stopping the screw gun.

Feed rate-the speed at which stock is pushed through the saw blade.

Fiberboard-an engineered wood product. To make fiberboard, wet fibers are refined and mixed with an adhesive. They are then compressed under heat and pressure to produce panels.

Fiber cement board-an engineered wood product. Its cellulose fibers are bound together with a mixture of Portland cement, ground sand, additives and water.

Fiber saturation point-the point at which the cell walls of wood absorbs all the water they can hold.

Film forming finish-a finish that coats the wood surface.

Fines-finally crushed or powdered materials.

Finger joint-a joint having a closely spaced series of wedge-shaped cuts made in the mating surfaces of the two pieces of wood. These cuts create large surface area that improves the glue bond between the two parts.

Finish flooring-the topmost surface of a floor system.

Finished grade-the level of the ground when grading is completed.

Fire blocking-blocking meant to slow the passage of flames through wall cavities. It also strengthens the walls. It is made from short lengths of two by framing lumber installed crosswise between studs.

Firebrick-brick used specifically for lining fireplaces and other heating units.

Firecode drywall-drywall that is more fire resistant.

Fire rated door-a door built to resist the passage of fire. These doors are not fireproof. They withstand fire only long enough for occupants to reach safety.

Fixture-any device, such as a bathtub, that receives or drains water.

Flagged bristles-Brussels, as on a paintbrush, having slightly splayed tips.

Flashing-a thin sheet of material that prevents water from reaching wood framing.

Flat sawn lumber-lumber cut from a log that is squared up lengthwise and then sawn into boards. The end grain of a flat sawn board shows the growth rings running across the board’s width. The face has distinctive archlike patterns.

Flight-in a stairway, a straight, continuous run.

Floor joist-any light beam that supports a floor.

Floor plan-a plan included for each level of the building. It is drawn as if the house was sliced horizontally at a level that would include all door and window openings. It shows the size and location of the rooms on a given floor.

Floor sheathing-the layer of material over the floor joists.

Flue-the passage inside the chimney through which the air, gases, and smoke rise. Its dimensions, height, shape, and interior smoothness determine how effective the chimney is in creating draft.

Flue liner-a fire Clay or stainless steel pipe assembled from individual sections that sit within the chimney brickwork.

Fly Rafter-the rafter extending from the ridge board to the structural fascia. In a modern overhang about 20 inches, both the sheeting and a fly Rafter aid in supporting the rake section.

Folding rule-a rigid wood of rule six to 8 inches long that folds into a compact size.

Footing-a base providing a larger bearing surface against the soil for load bearing parts of the structure. Footings are generally made of concrete poured into place.

Form-any framework designed to contain wet concrete. Forms can be made of steel, lumber, or a combination of lumber and plywood.

Form release agent-a liquid that prevents concrete from sticking to the forms.

Forstner bit-a bit having a brad point and a sharpened rim. It is excellent for boring smooth holes with flat bottoms in wood.

Foundation plan-a plan showing a top view of the footings and foundation walls. It also shows the location of posts and other elements, such as pads needed to support in the exterior deck. All openings in the foundation walls are labeled and dimensioned. The type and location of the foundation anchor bolts identified.

Frame-in a window, the fixed part of the assembly that receives the sash. It consists of a sill, side jambs, and a head jamb.

Frameless cabinet-a cabinet having framing around the opening. Its hinges are concealed and mounted on the side walls.

Framing connector-a connection that is often used to support and connect standard framing lumber. Such connectors consist of a formed metal bracket.

Framing plan-a plan showing the size, number, and spacing of structural members. Separate framing plans may be drawn for the floors and the roof.

Framing square-a large metal square consisting of a blade, or body, and a tongue. Also called a carpenter square.

Free enterprise-an economic system in which businesses and individuals may buy, sell, and set prices for goods and services.

French doors-doors hung in pairs on hinges located at each side of the door opening.

Frieze block-a short piece of two by framing lumber nailed between the roof rafters to seal off the attic space.

Full height paneling-paneling that runs from floor to ceiling.

Furring strip-a thin strip of wood permanently installed to keep paneling and other materials from touching another surface. They are also used to level an irregular surface and to allow air to circulate behind paneling.

G

Gable-a triangular wall enclosed by the sloping ends of the roof.

Gable-end truss-the first truss on the building and the most important truss in bracing it. They should be braced with lumber standoffs anchored to stakes driven into the ground.

Gable roof-a roof with two sloping sides that meet at the top to form a gable at each end.

Gable wall-a wall that angles upward to meet the underside of the roof framing.

Gain-a mortise with a depth equal to the thickness of a single leaf.

Galvanizing-the process of coating steel with a protective layer of zinc.

Gambrel roof-a variation of the Gable roof. It has a steep slope on two sides. A second slope begins part way up and continues to the top.

Gasket-a flexible material preventing air or liquid for moving between parts of the tool.

Girder-a large principal horizontal member used to support the floor joists.

Glazing-the clear glass or plastic portions of the window.

Glue nailing-the use of adhesives to hold plywood together when nails or screws are not enough. This combination produces a particularly strong bond.

Glulam-an abbreviation for glue laminated, as in glue laminated beam. When layers of lumber are glued together, their strength and stiffness are greater than that of solid lumber of equal size.

Grade-the height or level of the surrounding soil.

Grade stamp-a permanent mark that identifies a board species, quality, mill source quality and general indication of strength.

Ground-in plastering, a material permanently or temporarily attached to a surface to be plastered. It may be made of wood but it is most often made of metal. It provides a straight edge and helps the plasterer gauge the thickness of the plaster.

Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) -a fast acting circuit breaker that can protect people from electrical shock.

Grounding-providing a place for electricity to flow safely from a electrical device, such as an electrically powered tool, to the earth.

Grout-a thin mortar used for filling spaces.

H

Hacksaw-a saw witha U-shaped steell frame fitted with replaceable metal cutting blades.

Hammer drill-a specialized corded drill used to drill holes in masonry while the chuck revolves, the drill creates a rapid, hammer like, reciprocating action. This helps drive a masonry bit into the masonry.

Hammer Tacker-a slender magazine for holding staples, with a handle at one end.

Handsaw-a saw with a wide blade in lengths from 20 to 28 inches.

Hand sledge-a hammer with a two-faced head weighing between two and 4 pounds.

Hardboard-a high density fiberboard.

Header-a horizontal member carrying loads from other members in directing the loads around an opening.

Head joint-a vertical mortar joint.

Head lap-the shortest distance from the lower edge of an overlapping shingle to the upper edge of the shingle in the second course below.

Head room-the clearance directly above a step. It is measured from the outside edge of the nosing to the ceiling directly overhead.

Heartwood-the portion of a tree near its core. It is dark in color.

Hip Rafter-a rafter forming a raised area, or hip, usually extending from the corner of the building diagonally to the Ridge board. It extends diagonally from plate to Ridge board.

Hip roof-a roof that slopes at the ends of the building as well as at the two sides.

Hold down anchor-a fastening anchor installed at each corner of the house or as required by local code.

Hole saw-a cylindrical metal sleeve having a saw tooth edge.

Hollow core construction-construction consisting of light framework of wood or corrugated cardboard faced with thin plywood or hardboard.

Horizontal sliding window-and window in which the sashes slide horizontally in separate tracks.

House wrap-material made from high density polyethylene fibers. These fibers interlock to allow water vapor to pass through, but not its liquid form.

Hybrid window-a window having sashes and frames made of a combination of two or more materials, such as wood, metal, vinyl, fiberglass, or wood composites.

Hydration-a chemical reaction causing concrete to harden when combined with water.

Hydrostatic pressure-pressure created by water building up on one side of the foundation wall, forcing moisture through the concrete.

I

Ice dam-ice formed by melting snow freezing at the eve line. As more snow melts, the water backs up behind the eves and seeps beneath the shingles.

Impact noise rating-a measurement identifying the impact noise resistance of a floor system.

Independent slab-a slab used in areas where the ground freezes fairly deep during winter. Also called a ground support slab.

Indirect costs-cost not specifically related to a particular project. These costs relate to the organization and supervision of the project. Also called overhead.

Infiltration-the passage of fresh air into a building through the cracks in windows, doors, and framing.

In-line framing-framing typically used in steel frame construction, in which all vertical or horizontal load bearing structural members are aligned.

In set door- in cabinets, a door that fits entirely within the door opening. A small gap is required between the door in the face frame to provide clearance.

Inside diameter-the widest part of a circular opening, such as that in a hose.

Insulating glass window-Windows having two or more sheets of glass separated by an airspace. The edges are steel to trap the air between the sheets, which provides the installation. Sometimes called a double glazed window.

Insulation-a material that slows the transmission of heat, sound, or electrical energy.

Internal cut-a hole cut in a material without starting at the edge.

International residential code-a building code designed to make up for regional variations. It covers detached one and two family dwellings and town houses that are no more than three stories high.

Internship-a form of on the job training that combines classroom instruction and work experience.

J

Jack Rafter-a short and common Rafter that may be framed to a hip Rafter, a valley Rafter, or both. There are hip Jack rafters and Valley Jack rafters.

Jamb-an exposed upright member on each side and at the top of the frame.

J. channel-A J-shaped piece of plastic or metal that is used to support trim.

Joint compound-a thick paste like material used in combination with joint tape to conceal the joints between panels.

Jointer-in masonry, a simple metal bar with a shaped end that is run over a mortar joint to pack the mortar into it and give it a particular shape. Also called a jointing tool.

Jointer plane-a long 20 to 24 inch plane with a blade that cuts bevel side down, also called a Jack plane.

Joist hangar-a sturdy metal bracket used were floor or ceiling joists meet another framing member, such as a beam.

Joist tracks-c shaped members by which joists are attached to the foundation. Also called the rim tracks.

Journey level worker-a worker with an intermediate level of skill.

K

Kerf-the width of a cut made by the blade of a saw.

Keyhole saw -a narrow saw with a 10 inch long replaceable blade with fine teeth.

Keyway-the part of a footing that locks the foundation walls to the footing.

Kickback-a momentary stoppage of a spinning blade when it encounters something while the saw is under full power. Consequently, the saw is violently kicked back at the operator.

Kiln-an oven, such as one used for removing moisture from wood, in which moisture, air flow, and temperature are carefully controlled.

King post truss-a truss with upper and lower cords and a single vertical post in the center.

King stud-the full length stud on either side of an opening.

Knee boards-boards measuring about 12” x 24” placed on the concrete to support the weight of the finisher.

L

Ladder stabilizer-a device that can be bolted to the top of the ladder. It has arms 4 feet apart that steady the top of the ladder to prevent it from slipping.

Laminated strand lumber (LSL)-a engineered wood products made of wood strands glued together and cut to uniform dimensions.

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)-a engineered wood product in which the basic element is wood veneer glued together.

Landing-a floor area where a flight ends or begins.

Latex paint-paint that has latex-based Binder suspended in water.

Lath-in plastering, strips fasten to wood or steel framing members. They are usually of gypsum or metal. Lath serves as a base material for the application of plaster.

Layout tape measure-a steel or fiberglass tape in a rust resistant case with a real in crank.

Lead Carpenter-the most experienced Carpenter on a team. This person is entrusted with reading the plans.

Lead corner-a partially constructed corner of brick

Ledger-the length of lumber that connects the deck to the house.

Lifeline-a rope intended to prevent a worker from falling more than 6 feet. The lifeline is fastened at one end to a secure point on the structure and at the other end to a harness worn by the worker.

Lift-a compacted layer of fill.

Line block-a small L-shaped wood or plastic device to which 1 inch of the Masons string line is attached. It hooks over the edge of the break and is held in place by the attention of the string. Opposing line blocks are moved upward as the wall gains height.

Lineman’s pliers - pliers with stout, flattened jaws and a long, slightly curved handle. Cutting edges are formed into one side of the jaws.

Lintel-a horizontal supporting member installed above an opening such as a window, door, or masonry fireplace.

Live load-weight that is not permanently attached to the building. Examples of live loads include furniture, books, and people.

Load-a force that create stresses on a structure. Weight is one type of load, wind is another.

Load bearing wall-a wall that also supports weight from portions of the house above, such as the roof.

Locking pliers-an all-purpose tool with double lever action that locks the jaws to clamp a work piece.

Lockset- an assembly of knobs, latches, and a locking mechanism.

Lookout-a horizontal member that extends from a Rafter into a nailer or the face of the wall sheathing. A lookout forms a horizontal surface to which the soffit material is attached.

Lookout Rafter-a Rafter that projects beyond the walls of the house, usually at 90° angles to the common rafters.

Louvered door-a door in which the panels have been replaced by louvers.

Lower cabinets-cabinets that rest on the floor and supports the countertops. Often called base cabinets.

Lumber-pieces of wood having a uniform thickness and weight and sawn from a log.

M

Machines stress rated lumber (MSR)-structural lumber that has been graded electronically and stamped to indicate the specific load it will support.

Magazine-the container on a tool that holds a ready supply of fasteners. In both pneumatic and cordless nailers and staplers, the fasteners are held in one of two types of magazines: strip loaded or coil loaded.

Makeup air-air that replaces the air exhausted by combustion appliances. Increasingly, local codes require that all types of fireplaces be supplied with make-up air.

Mallet-a two headed hammer, often made of wood, rubber, or plastic. The handle is wood.

Mansard roof-a variation of the hip roof. It has steep slopes on all four sides. Part way up, a shallow second slope is developed and continues to the top where it meets the slopes from the other side.

Masons rule-a rule used for measuring the height and spacing of three courses as they are laid.

Master-a worker with the highest level of skill.

Mastic-a thin adhesive that can be applied with a notch trowel or with a caulking gun..

Material safety data sheets (MSDS)-an information sheet that identifies potential health and safety hazards associated with handling or machining of a material. It will suggest suitable precautions.

Measuring box-in masonry, a bottomless box having a capacity of 1, 2, 3, or 4 ft.³. The frame should be marked on the inside to show the volume levels, such as 1 ft.³, two cubic feet., or less. Panels on the side of the box make it easier to lift after the material has been measured.

Mechanical plan-a plan showing the arrangement and location of plumbing and heating features.
Mechanicals-the plumbing, of electrical, and heating/ventilation/air-conditioning systems in a building.

Medium density fiberboard (MDF)-a panel product made of compressed wood fibers mixed with a urea formaldehyde adhesive.

Mentor-a more experienced worker who is able and willing to give guidance and advice to a less skilled worker.

Metal framing ties-metal fasteners used to hold pieces of wood together or to reinforce a joint.

Metal snips-a cutting tool with scissors like handles. Sometimes called tin snips.

Mil-the unit of measurement for measuring the thickness of a thin steel. One mil equals 1000 of an inch.

Mildew-a microscopic fungus that thrives on many household surfaces, including painted siding.

Miter cut-a type crosscut made at an angle across the grain of a board.

Model building code-a set of building regulations developed by an independent organization on which local governments can base their own building codes.

Molding-a narrow length of wood with a shaped profile.

Monolithic slab-a footing in a floor slab that are formed in one continuous poor. Also referred to as a unified slab, a thickened edge slab, or a slab with a turned down footing.

Mortgage-a long-term loan that is secured by a property. Usually 15 to 30 years.

Mulled Windows-Windows of various styles and sizes combined to make up larger units. These combined units are separated only by vertical wood pieces.

Mullion strip-a vertical wood piece separating windows of various styles and sizes combined to make up a larger unit.

Muntin-a short vertical or horizontal piece used to hold a pane of glass.

Musculoskeletal disorder-a disorder of the muscles, tendons, ligaments, joints, cartilage, or spinal discs.

N

Nail set-a steel shank 4 inches long with a concave tip and a square striking surface used for driving nail heads below the surface of the wood.

National building code-a building code published by the building officials and code administrators international.

National electrical code-a building code covering work to install electrical services.

National plumbing code-the building code covering work done to install plumbing services.

Needle nose pliers-pliers with a long, thin nose and cutting edges near the joint.

Networking-making use of all your personal connections to achieve your career goals.

Newel-a member supporting each end of the handrail.

Nodes-on a CPM diagram, the boxes or circles that represent events that can be recognized.

Nominal span-the length of the bottom chord of the truss.

Non-continuous joist-a joists that is in two pieces. The pieces meet and overlap over an intermediate support.

Nonmetallic sheathed cable wiring-cable consisting of two or three insulated copper conductors and one bare copper conductor within a thermoplastic covering.

O

Occupational safety and health act-federal legislation enacted… to assure so far as possible every working man and woman in the nation safe and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources. This act affects all employees who are working in the building trades where one or more workers are employed.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)-the federal agency that administers the occupational safety and health. Issues standards and rules for safe and healthful working conditions, tools, equipment, facilities, and processes. OSHA conducts workplace inspections to assure the standards are followed.

Off cut-a waste piece of wood that can become wedged between the blade and the rip fence when wood is being crosscut with a miter gauge and with a rip fence .

Official survey-a document that shows the boundaries of the property.

Oil-based paint-paint that has an oil-based binder suspended in a mineral spirit carrier.

On center (OC)-the distance from the center line of one structural member to the centerline of the next closest member. Span tables list the maximum spacing allowed between different sizes of joists or rafters. This spacing is referred to as on center spacing.

Open end wrench-a non-adjustable wrench with accurately machined openings on either end.

Open riser stairway-a stairway having no risers.

Open Valley-a roof style in which shingles are not applied to the intersection of two roof surfaces. This leaves the underlying roofing material exposed along the length of the valley.

Oriented strand board (OSB)-a wood product made from wood strands bonded with adhesive under heat and pressure.

Overlay door-in a cabinet, a door that fits over the edge of the carcase or face frame.

P

Paint grades-lower grades of molding on which paining will cover minor imperfections.

Pane-the glass within each section of a window.

Parallel strand lumbers (PSL)-an engineered wood product made with veneers that are glued together.

Parging-the process of damp proofing by spreading mortar or cement plaster over concrete block and forming a cove where the wall joins with the footing.

Parquet-flooring consisting of small precisely cut pieces of wood forming a geometric pattern.

Particleboard-a wood product made a very small particles of wood bonded together.

Partition wall-an interior wall. It can sometimes be load bearing.

Partnership-a business in which two or more people share of ownership. Control and profits of the business are divided among partners according to the partnership agreement.

Passage door-a door that swings open and closed on two or more leaf hinges mounted a long one side.

Penetrating finish-a finish that soaks into the wood.

Performance method-a technique that depends upon established engineering principles and design load specifications to calculate size and strength for individual steel framing members.

Performance standard-and construction, a standard that defines the required performance of a specified building component.

Perm value-the measure of the effectiveness of a vapor barrier.

Picture framing-in window construction, the use of only casing and no stool or apron to finish the bottom of the window frame, with all four lengths being mitered.

Pier-a block of concrete that is usually separate from the main foundation. It is often used in girder floor systems or to support decks..

Pilaster-a projection resembling a column that may be used to strengthen a wall under a beam or girder.

Pilot hole-a hole drilled in wood to start and guide a screw.

Pitch-on roof framing, the ratio of total rise to span.

Plank-a solid wood board that is it least 3 inches wide.

Plan of action-a plan that helps a business reach its goals by identifying a specific course of action.

Plan view-a top view showing the width, length, and location of objects as if you were standing on a platform high above them and looking down. Also known a birds eye view.

Plate-a horizontal framing member used to tie together interior and exterior wall framing. The width of the plate corresponds to the thickness of the wall. Each wall has three plates; a bottom plate and two top plates.

Platform frame construction-a construction technique in which each level of the house is constructed separately. The floor is a platform built independently of the walls. Also called platform framing.

Pliers-a hand tool with opposing jaws that are designed to hold things.

Plies- very thin, pliable sheets of wood that have been sawn, peeled, or sliced from a log used in plywood.

Plunge cut-an internal cut made without first drilling a hole.

Pneumatic tool-a tool powered by compressed air.

Pocket door-a door that slides into an opening or pocket inside the wall.

Portland cement-a manufactured cement used in modern concrete. Its name derived from its similarity in color to Portland stone, a limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, off the coast of England.

Post-a wood or steel vertical member that provides intermediate support for a girder.

Post and beam framing-framing in which fewer, but larger, pieces of wood are spaced farther apart than those used in conventional framing.

Post-formed countertop-a countertop consisting of laminate that has been attached to a substrate at the factory.

Pre-design estimate-an estimate made before the exact features of the house are known.

Prescriptive method-a technique that uses standardized tables that give specification and other information relating to steel frame construction.

Primer-a paint that has a higher proportion of binder than standard paint. This enables it to hold particularly well to unpainted wood surfaces.

Pry bar-a steel bar six to 14 inches long, with a nail removing claw at one or both ends.

Pullout capacity-the holding capacity of a screw within a connection. Pullout capacity is based on the number of threads penetrating and holding the connection.

Pump Jack-a metal device with a foot pedal that a worker pumps to make it slide up and down on a wood or aluminum post. Two or more jacks in a row support planks that a worker can use as a scaffold. Pump jacks are commonly used to reach the side walls of the house during siding or painting operations.

Punch list-a list identifying all the repairs that must be completed before the house is acceptable to the owner.

Purchasing agent-an individual who buys materials according to current needs.

Purlin-a horizontal structural member that supports roof loads and transfers them to roof beams.

Q

Quantity takeoff-a cost estimate in which every piece of material required to build a house is counted and priced. also called a complete construction cost estimate or a quantity survey.

Quarter sawn lumber-premium lumber cut from a log that is first sawed lengthwise into quarters. Boards are then cut from the faces of each quarter. The in grain of the quarter sawn board shows growth rings running across the thickness of the board. These growth rings generally form angles of 60° to 90° to the board surface.

R

Racking-in wall framing, a condition that occurs when the wall shifts and studs are forced out of plumb. And flooring, staggering the and joints of the flooring pieces so that the joints are not grouped closely together. A joint should be no closer than 6 inches to another in a previous course.

Radiant heat-heat that travels in a straight line from a hot surface and heats anything solid it meets.

Radius wall-a curved wall.

Radon-a colorless, odorless radioactive gas given off by some soils and rocks. In some parts of the United States, the seepage of radon into houses poses a health threat.

Rafter-an inclined member of the roof framework. Rafters serve the same purpose in the roof as joists in the floor or studs in the wall.

Rafter framing square-a square marked with degrees for fast layouts. Its small size makes it handy. Also called a triangular framing square.

Rails-on a ladder, a vertical supports to which the rungs or steps are attached. On a raised panel wood door, a horizontal cross pieces that form the outside frame of the door.

Rake-the part of the Gable roof that extends beyond the end walls. It may be either closed or extended.

Rebar-reinforcing steel can be purchased in the form of bars. It has a pattern surface that helps a concrete grip the steel.

Receptacle-a contact devise with a combination of slots and grounding holes to except the prongs of an electrical plug.

Reflected ceiling plan-a plan drawn as the ceiling would appear in a mirrored place on the floor below it. Reflected plans are used to show complex ceiling designs, such as tray ceilings and customize suspended ceilings, or to show the locations of multiple lighting fixtures.

Refractory cement-cement that is resistant to high temperatures.

Regulator-a valve that controls the air pressure reaching a tool.

Rendering-a drawing that is more like a picture of the structure than any other type of architectural drawing. Its purpose is most often to show the exterior of the house as it would look completed.

Repetitive stress injury-physical injury caused by repetitive tasks that cause minor irritation to nerves and tissue.

Resilient flooring-flooring made a flexible shock absorbing materials. It can be installed as tiles or in wide sheets.

Resources-the raw materials with which you do your work.

Resume-a summary of your career objectives, work experience, job qualifications, education, and training.

Retempering-adding water to mortar that has become too stiff to work.

Return-a piece that continues the profile of trim or molding around the corner.

Reveal- a small offset between a piece of trim and the surface it is applied to. It adds visual interest and allows the trim carpenter to adjust the fit of the casing if the door is not perfectly square.

Ridge-a roof framing member placed at the intersection of two upward sloping surfaces.

Ridge beam-a horizontal framing member to which the tops of the rafters are fasten. A Ridge beam is made from LVL, glue laminated, or nominal 4 inch lumber. The rafters rest on top of the Ridge beam or are supported by metal brackets nailed to its side. Also called a structural Ridge.

Ridge board-a horizontal piece that connects the upper ends of the rafters.

Rift sawn boards-quarter sawn boards with end grains and angles between 30 and 60°.

Right to know laws-regulations requiring the workers be notified of hazards.

Rim board-a length of engineered stock that has the same depth as the I joists.

Rim joist-a joist at the edge of the floor system.

Rip cut-a cut made with a saw along the direction of the grain.

Rip hammer-a hammer that has a wedge-shaped claw. Also called a Strait claw hammer.

Ripping bar-a bar with claws at each end.

Riser-on a stairway, the vertical board enclosing the spaces between the threads.

Roll roofing-mineral surface roofing material available in rolls that can be applied quickly over large areas.

Roof rake-that portion of the roof frame that extends beyond the walls on the Gable ends.

Room finish schedule-a list identifying the materials and finishes to be used for floors, walls, and ceilings for each room, including Hallways.

Rough opening-the space into which a door or window will fit. It allows room for the door window and its frame.

Rough sill-a horizontal member placed at the bottom of a window openings to support the window. It connects the upper inns of the cripples studs are below the window.

R. value-in insulation, measure of a materials ability to resist heat transmission.

S

Saddlebag dormers-a back to back pair of long shed dormers.

Sapwood-the outer growth layer of the tree it is lighter in color than the heartwood.

Sash-part of a window that holds the glazing. The frame is the fixed part of the assembly that receives the sash.

Scab-a short length of wood used to reinforce another piece.

Scaffold-a raised platform used for working at a height.

Scale-the ratio between the size of the object as drawn and its actual size.

Scarf joint-a joint formed by cutting an angle on the ends of board so that they overlap.

Schedule-a list that provides information to detailed too include elsewhere in the plans. An example is a window schedule.

Screed-a long, straight length of metal or wood that is used to strike off the concrete.

Seasoning-the process of drying wood by air drying or kiln drying.

Section view-a view providing important information about materials, fastening and support systems, and concealed features. It shows how an object looks when cut vertically by imaginary cutting plane. To cut is not necessarily continuous but may be staggered to include as much construction information as possible.

Self tapping screw-a screw that creates its own hole. A pre-drilled hole is not needed.

Service Main-a pipe that brings water to the house. It is connected at the street to the municipal water system.

Service panel-the Master electrical distribution panel.

Setback distance-the maximum distance allowed by local codes between a house and the property lines. Codes also specify setback distances between the house and utility lines, streams, and ponds.

Shear wall-a wall engineered to withstand unusual laterals stresses. Shear walls are often used in areas where earthquakes and severe storms are common they may require hold downs and or special anchor bolts.

Sheathing- rigid four by eight or larger panels that are attached to the outside surface of the exterior wall framing. Sheeting add great stiffness and strength to the walls.

shed roof-a roof that slopes in one direction only.

Sheen-one the glossiness of paint when dry. High sheen paints are easier to clean, but low sheen paints have a softer, less glaring appearance.

Side cut-the cut at the end of the hip Rafter where it joins the Ridge board at an angle. Also called a cheek cut.

Side lap-the amount that adjacent roofing sheets overlap each other horizontally. This applies primarily to rolled roofing and underlayerment. Also called a lap.

Sidewall shingles-wood shingles used as siding.

Sill plate-the horizontal framing member anchored to the foundation wall.

Sinkers-nails that are slightly thinner and shorter than Commons.

Site layout-the process of marking the location of a building on the land itself. This may be done by a survey or by a builder familiar with basic surveying methods.

Site plan-a plan that shows the building walk with boundaries, contours, existing roads, utilities, and other details such as existing trees and buildings. Also called a plot plan.

Skirt board-a finished board nailed to the wall before the stringers are installed. It protects the wall from damage and provides a finished edge against the wall, which makes it easier to paint or wallpaper the adjacent areas.

Sleeper-a length of lumber that supports wood flooring over concrete. You should breathe pressure treated.

Sliding t bevel-a hand tool with a sliding metal blade that can be set at an angle then locked into place to transfer angles.

Slope-the roof framing, the ratio of unit rise to unit run.

Slump test-a test to measure the consistency of concrete.

Soffit- on the interior, an area around the perimeter of a room that is lower than the rest of the ceiling. On the exterior, the underside of the eaves. It is sometimes enclosed. It can also be left open, exposing the Rafter tails.

Sole proprietorship-a business with only one owner.

Solid core construction-a type of construction used for exterior doors in which strips of wood, particleboard, rigid foam, or other core material are covered with a thin outer material, such as wood veneer.

Sound transmission class-a single number indicating the resistance of a building element, such as a wall, to the passage of airborne sound.

Span- the distance between the outer edges of the top plates measured at right angles to the Ridge board.

Span table-a table listing the maximum spacing allowed between different sizes of joists or rafters. Using span tables, a Carpenter can quickly find the right spacing for the species, grade, and dimensions of wood being used.

Spec house-a house constructed by a builder before there is a buyer.

Specifications-written notes arranged list form. They give instructions about materials and methods of work, especially those having to do with quality standards.

Spline- a thin strip of wood used to reinforce a joint.

Split ring connector-a connector that allows truss stock, such as that in a heavy truss, to be built up into layers.

Spreader- a device that holds the ladder open and prevents it from closing accidentally.

Springing angle-the angle at which the crown molding projects from the wall.

Springwood-the more porous, light colored portion of a trees wood.

Square-the amount of roofing material required to cover 100 ft.² over roof surface.

Stairway-a series of steps with all the related elements, including stringers and hand rail. A stairway may be completely enclosed, or it may be partially open on one or both sides.

Stairwell-the vertical shaft in which a stairway is built.

Standard building code-a building code published by the Southern building code Congress international.

Stationary window-a window consisting of a single light of insulated glass fastened permanently into the frame it cannot be opened.

Station Mark-in layout, a point over which the level is directly center. The layout is cited from this point. The station Mark may be a benchmark or eight corner of the lot, but it should be where the area can be conveniently sighted.

Step-a tread and riser.

Stepladder-a common type of folding ladder that has flattened steps instead of rungs.

Sticker-a long, slender piece of scrap wood that separates layers of wood products and allows air circulation..

Stiles-the vertical side members and raised panel wood doors.

Stock cabinet-a Cabinet built in standard sizes and stored in a warehouse until ordered.

Stock plan- a standard house plan that can be adapted to fit many different lots.

Stool-in a window, a horizontal member that lap the window sill and extends beyond the casing.

Stoop-an enlarged landing at the top of the steps.

Story pole-in carpentry, a measuring device made on site to ensure a uniform lay out all around the house. In masonry, a board with marking two to 8 inches apart. It can be used to gauge the top of the masonry for each course. Also called a course pole.

Strike plate-a metal plate inserted into an opening in the doorjamb into which the latch slips.

Stringers-those parts of a stairway that support the treads.

Strong back-a member used with shorter spans to stiffen the ceiling joists.

Structural insulated panel-a rigid panel of 3 ½ inch thick expanded polystyrene foam insulation between sheets of the exterior plywood or oriented strand board also called a foam core panel.

Structural timber-lumber that is 5 x 5 or larger. It is used mainly for posts and columns.

Stucco-a durable cement like product that is applied over reinforcing wire.

Subflooring-engineered wood sheets or construction grade lumber that is used to construct a sub floor, which is a rough floor laid on floor joists as a base for the finished work.

Sub grade-the earth below the slab. This grade must be well and uniformly compacted to prevent any uneven settlement of the floor slab.

Substrate-a material, such as plywood or particleboard, that serves as a base for another material. Common substrate materials are plywood and particleboard at least three quarters of an inch thick with no defects or voids in the surface.

Summer wood-the dense, dark-colored portion of the wood. Its cells have thick walls and small cavities.

T

Tail-the portion of the Rafter that extends beyond the wall of the building to form the eave.

Tail joist-a floor joists interrupted by a header.

Template-a guide made from metal or thin wood.

Temporary bracing- bracing that has the following purposes: it prevents the walls from tipping as they are being erected or holds them into position after they have been plumbed and straightened.

Theodolite-a transit that reads horizontal and vertical angles electronically. It displays the measurements on a LCD screen.

Timber frame-a freestanding type of post and beam frame that rests on a foundation. The supporting members are fairly far apart. Made from either hardwood are soft wood, the timbers are surfaced and connected with interlocking joinery. The joints are secured with wooden pegs.

Toe nailing- a nailing technique in which a nail is driven at an angle from the face through the edge of the lumber and into another piece. In general, toe nailing calls for smaller nails than face nailing.

Toolbox saw- a general purpose handsaw with a flexible blade and hardened teeth.

Top lap-the portion of the shingle not exposed to the weather.

Top plate-the plate nailed to the top ends of the studs to tie them together. It also provides a nailing surface for wall coverings and sheathing.

Torpedo level-a small spirit level, approximately 9 inches long.

Total rise-the vertical distance from the top of the top plate to the upper end of the measuring line.

Total run-one half of the span (except when the slope of the roof is irregular).

Trap-a curved section of drainpipe that is located beneath a fixture. It prevents the sewer gasses in the waste pipes from entering the house but does not block the drainage.

Tread-that part of a stairway on which people step.

Trend-a general development or movement in a certain direction.

Trestle-a portable metal frame with rungs that is used to support scaffold planks at various heights.

Trim-a straight length of wood such as 1 x 4 that is also S4S, or surfaced on four sides. Trim is also used as a verb. For example, a builder might trim out a window (attach molding and trim to it).

Trimmer joist-a joists used to form the side of a large opening.

Trimmer stud-a short beam that supports the header over a window or door opening to transfer structural loads from the header to the bottom plate. Also called a trimmer or Jack stud.

Try square-a fixed blade square with a metal blade and a wood or metal handle.

U

Under course-a low-grade a layer of shingles that will not be exposed to the weather.

Underlayerment-in roofing, a material, such as roofing felt, applied to the roof sheathing before shingles are installed. In flooring, a thin panel product with a surface smoother than standard sub flooring. It prevents small flaws in the sub floor from showing through resilient flooring, and provides firm, clean, and void free support.

Uniform building code-a building code published by the international conference of building officials.

Unit cost estimate-a detailed estimate of construction cost made by determining the cost for each component, such as a wall or a roof. Also called a component cost estimate.

Unit dimension-the overall size of the window, including casing.

Unit rise-the number of inches that a roof rises for every 12 inches of run. As is the unit rise varies, the slope of the roof changes.

Universal design-a design concept aimed at making a house usable and safe for the widest variety of people, including older adults and those with disabilities.

Upper cabinets-cabinets that hang on a wall. Also called wall cabinets.

Utility drywall saw-a slender saw with a pointed tip, a stiff blade, and large, sharp teeth.

V

Valley Rafter-a sloping beam that forms a depression in the roof instead of a hip. Like the hip Rafter, it extends diagonally from plate to Ridge board. A hip Rafter is called for only on framing a hip roof, but a Valley Rafter is needed on both the hip and Gable roofs whenever the roof planes intersect.

Vapor barrier-a material highly resistant to vapor transmission.

Veneer match-the arrangement of pieces of veneer to create different patterns and effects.

Veneer plaster-a specially formulated gypsum plaster.

W

Wainscoting-paneling the runs part way up the wall from the floor.

Wale-a horizontal bracing member for a reusable form.

Wall sheathing-a panel product nailed to the outside surface of exterior walls.

Wall tie-a corrosion resistant fastener secured with galvanized nails.

Warrington hammer-a hammer with a flattened peen instead of a claw .

Wear layer-the top layer of engineered flooring. It may be 1/8 of an inch to nearly one quarter of an inch thick.

Weatherstripping-flexible materials such as foam and fibrous pile designed to prevent air leakage around an opening.

Web-the member between the cords on a truss.

Weep hole-a drainage hole located in the masonry, usually formed by omitting the mortar in part of a vertical joint.

Welding-the process of joining metals and melting the steel and adding filler metals to use the pieces at a point of attachment.

Wind chill-a combination of temperature and wind speed that increases the chilling effect. For example, when the actual air temperature is 40°F, four degrees Celsius, a wind of 35 mph creates weather conditions equivalent to those when the temperature is 11°F, -12°C.

Winder-a radiating tread that can be used instead of a platform to turn a stair.

Window schedule-a portion of the building plans that contains descriptions of the windows, plus the size for the glass, the sash, and sometimes the rough opening. The location of each window in a house is found by matching the number of the window in the window schedule with the corresponding number on the house plan.

Wood chisel-a tool with a steel blade sharpened to a fine edge at one end and a wood or plastic handle at the other.

Wood rasp-a tool that is similar to a metal file but having raised teeth. On some models, the teeth are located on a replaceable, then metal plate that is attached to the handle. In others, the teeth and handle are formed from a solid piece.

Wood veneer-a very thin, pliable sheet of wood that has been sought, peeled, or sliced from a log.

Work ethic-your personal commitment to doing your very best on the job. It includes exercising responsibility, flexibility, honesty, Cooperation, and commitment.

Work triangle-the shortest walking distance between the refrigerator, the primary cooking surface, and the sink. The size of the work triangle is a measure of a kitchens efficiency.

Wrench-a handle designed for turning a fastener such as a bolt or nut.

X,Y,Z

Zoning- regulations that divide land into areas, or zones, used for different purposes. Only certain types of buildings may be built within these defined zones.

Getting Started

For many years in this county the craft and the tools of carpentry changed very little. Incredible structures, many which where works of fine art, where crafted with simple hand tools. Much of the empire state building for example was measured out with simple folding rules. These tools were often considered works of art themselves. These tools were razor sharp and rust free and were passed down through the years to apprentices from the masters. There were few power tools at this time. When power tools started to appear they were look upon as dangerous and imprecise. After World war 2 the demand for housing became so large that builders could not keep up with traditional methods. This is when everything started to change. A carpenter with the sharpest handsaw might have spent a day fitting a joint on a 12x12 beam. Now with the proper power tools this job can be done in a few minutes. The power tools today were practically non existent 45 years ago. The opposite has come true. Now you can go to a job site and not one carpenter will have a handsaw or folding rule.

Basic framing tools

Very few tools are needed to frame the average house, But the one that has increased production incredibly is the circular saw. This saw is considered to be the work horse of the construction industry. Many framers prefer to use the 7 1/4 heavy duty models. These saws are cheap and extremely durable. In the east the side winder model of these saws seems to be more popular than in the west. For either model a crosscut blade will handle most framing tasks. Carbide tip blades are excellent for those that want to cut down on the frequent sharpening of blades. Add a heavy duty 12 gauge extension cord and nearly all of you wood cutting needs will be met.

Pneumatic mailers still haven't completely replaced the hammer, and perhaps never will. Carpenters are always on the lookout for a better well balanced hammer, and there are plenty of them on the market to choose from. Most framers prefer a 20 to 24 oz. strait claw hammer with a milled face and a fairly long handle about 16-18 inches. Remember that driving nails is not a matter of handle length or weight and is a matter of mostly wrist action. Wood handles seem to absorb shock and impact better than metal or fiberglass handles. The strait claw can be struck into heavy lumber and used to carry it around the job site. It allows carpenters to pry plates apart easily in preparation for wall framing, to pick up headers and move them into position and to pull beams around without having to pick them up. The serrated face makes it less likely that the hammer will slip off the nail head while working, yet it does have its disadvantages. It always hurts to hit your thumb with a hammer, but it seems to hurt a little bit more when it does leave waffle marks.

Sometimes a wooden handle can become slick and difficult to grasp, To eliminate this problem it helps to ruff up the handle with a rasp giving you a firmer grip. You can also rub some sap on the handle to help give you a secure grip. In really really dry weather no steel wedges in the head will keep it secure; By slipping your hammer head into a bucket of water will cause the wood to expand and will help keep the head tight and secure.

Hammer handles do break from time to time. When selecting a new handle it is important to make sure that the wood grain runs parallel to the handle. A grain that is running perpendicular to the head will make the handle break easier. Once the handle is installed and snuggly fitted wrap the first few inches of the handle in electrical tape to make it even stronger yet.

Sometimes nails bend or are installed in the wrong place and have to be pulled. The easiest way to break the handle is to hook the nail and pull directly back on the handle. A easier way is to hook the nail closest to the wood. Then work the nail out by moving the handle from side to side. Each time the nail will move out about 1 inch. Repeat this motion from side to side until the nail is completely removed. This will prevent the handle from breaking.

The traditional white overalls with their many pockets were nice to wear, especially in the colder parts of the country, but they restricted ease of movement. The leather belt with hanging nail bags solved this problem. Framers prefer a wide belt to distribute the weight, and wear the bags to the side or the rear so that they can grab a handful of nails even when they are bent over. Many other tool holders can be fitted and attached to the belt, the most common of these for framers is the hammer loop. By punching a small hole into the belt and inserting a small key loop you now have a place to put a small wrench or saw wrench. With the bags completely loaded they can weigh up to 12 lbs in weight. This is not a tremendous amount of weight but after 8 hours of work can be noticeably felt. Several years ago a tired framer fitted a pair of red suspenders to the belt. What a relief that this was. He wondered why he had never thought about doing this before.

The most commonly used measuring tape is the push and pull type with a retractable metal blade. Carpenters that are doing layout work prefer the 30 foot model compared to shorter tapes. On occasion, you may need a 50 or 100 foot tape for longer distances.

One of the most useful tools in a framers bags is the chalk box, used everywhere a strait line needs to be marked; it also work well as a plumb bob. Chalk boxes used to be filled by scooping chalk into them with a teaspoon, but it wasn’t long before someone showed up on the job site with a plastic shampoo bottle filled with chalk, a precursor of today’s bottle that fills the box with squeeze bottle and tip. Many framers like to use red or blue cement coloring rather than chalk because it doesn’t wash away easily in the rain.

The basic marking tools are a carpenters pencil and a crayon. The carpenter’s pencil is flat with a fairly hard head. The crayon is large and called a “keel” by people in the trade. These two tools can be kept together by fitting the pencil in a small tube and the crayon in the other end of the tube.

Handy hand tools

The traditional carpenter’s toolbox has given way to the carpenters tool bucket as a means of carrying tools. This is most often a cleaned out bucket that used to hold drywall joint compound. A bag is now available that fits into the bucket that is fitted with many pouches that is designed to hold all of your tools.

The small, Triangular square often called a “speed square” has mostly replace the try square and framing square for most roof cutting jobs and other jobs. The framing square, equipped with stair gauges or buttons and used to lay out stairs and frame roof, has a simple le shape: the 24 in long side is called the blade and the 16 inch side is called the tongue. The “Squangle” is and adjustable square that is handy for marking rafter tails. The drywallers t-square can speed up the process of marking sheets that need to be cut.

A 2 foot level fits nicely into the tool bucket, will a longer one can be place in a piece of plumbers pipe to be protected. A scratch awl comes in handy to hold one end of the chalk line while laying out on top of floors. A movable weight such as a coffee can or steel bar can be used to hold the string line on concrete slabs. A dry line or nylon string helps layout long walls as this string can be pulled really tight and stretched.

A nail pulling bar or “cats paw” can be used to remove nails that are driven in the wrong place, while a pry bar helps to move heavy walls into position. A small sledge hammer 6 or 8 lb is useful for beating tongue and groove sheeting into position, and you’ll need a large caulking gun for dispensing construction adhesive.

Screwdrivers, Both standard and Phillips, and a set of Allen wrenches are often needed to repair damaged equipment. Tin snips cut through metal bands that hold bundles of lumber together, Although hammer claws may be handier. Pliers and side cutters can be used to cut wire. A ratchet wrench with sockets works well for tightening bolts. Sometimes a sharp wood chisel is needed when working with beams.

A Pocket calculator that works in feet and inches can increase efficiency, and a small book of rafter tables is a good way to figure rafter lengths. Even a builders level is needed on occasion to set up level points over long distances.

A utility knife or pocket knife has dozens of uses, from sharpening a pencil to cutting rolls of building paper. Duct tape is today’s carpenter what bailing wire was to those of yesterday. Workers used to wrap hammer handles, patch electrical cords, protect new saw blades and mend ripped jeans. Modern life, and certainly modern construction, is a little bit easier to manage with duct tape.

Site built tools

Site built tools such as sawhorses, scaffolds, ramps and ladders must be properly constructed, with no half measures. Often these tools are only needed for a short time, as with staging used to set a heavy ridge beam in place, but they should be put together with care. What goes up can come down, don’t let it be on you! Some of the most common devices that carpenters build on the site are a plumb stick and push stick to help plumb and line walls and rafter templates to help layout roof rafters.

Specialized tools

Many specialized tools have been developed by and for framers to simplify their jobs and to help them work more efficiently. Among these is a bolt hole marker used to mark drill holes on sills. Several different types are available. A channel marker is a t-shaped metal or wood device that is used to lay out the location of outside and inside corners on the plates. Scribing the location of studs on the plates in preparation for framing is made easy with a layout stick.

Handy power tools

A ½ in. drill is a common power tool on framing jobs. It is used to drill holes for bolting two pieces of wood together, for attaching a beam to a metal saddle at the end of a post column or for bolting sills to the foundation. A good selection of drill bits, both for wood and metal, is useful. The drill bit sizes most often used are ½, 5/8, and ¾ inch. Get some with short shanks and others with long shanks so that you can drill to any required depth. A ½ masonry bit is sometimes needed to install anchor bolts into concrete. For smaller jobs, like drilling pilot holes in decking, a 3/16 drill bit works just fine. Once the holes are drilled, an impact wrench with a set of sockets speeds up the process of tightening bolts.

Another handy tool, more often used on remodeling jobs, is the reciprocating saw equipped with both wood cutting and metal cutting blades. It pretty much replaces both the handsaw and the hacksaw. A power miter saw, or “chop saw”, can be used to cut block rapidly, but even quicker is the radial arm saw, which can cut multiple pieces of wood. A beam saw, or circular saw with a 16 inch blade, can be used for a variety of cutting jobs that are beyond the capacity of the 7 ¼ model. The gasoline operated chainsaw also has its place in residential framing; for some jobs it is handy for cutting holes in a roof sheathing for heater vents because you don’t have to drag the power cords from place to place. A chainsaw attachment is available that turns a circular saw into a great tool for cutting beams and rafter tails.

Table saws are seldom seen on rough framing jobs, but they can be used when available. For example, a table saw can speed up the process of ripping 2x stock for frieze blocks between rafters.

Powder actuated tools are used to fasten wood and other materials to concrete and structural steel by means of a metal pin. They have a firing mechanism much like a gun and are available with single or multiple power loads.

You don’t need pneumatic nailers to build a house, but they can increase your production. The newer, lightweight models can handle different sizes of framing nails. Air compressors should be mounted on wheels for easy movement and need to have enough capacity for the number of nailers that you will be using at any given time, each of which will also require sufficient lengths of air hose. There is even a palm-sized nailer that runs on air that can drive nails in those hard to reach places.

The most common source of power is to run these electric tools is the temporary power pole, usually set up by a private company, inspected by the building department and then connected to the power grid by the electrical company. All this can take time, so remember to request an installation several weeks before your actual starting date. If the job is small, you may be able to buy power from a cooperative neighbor, or, if no power is available at all, there are several portable, gas operated generators on the market, for sale and for rent, that will adequately fill your needs.

Another very useful, but expensive , tool is the forklift, which can be used to place loads of lumber exactly where you want them, saving many hours of hard work by human woodpackers. Some of these have masts that will go three stories high with booms that can set lumber loads in from the edge of the building. On larger framing jobs, cranes of various kinds are now often used, serving all trades, positioning loads anywhere they are needed on multiple-story buildings.

Safety equipment

Safety is a serious issue. There is too much involved to not make it part of your daily routine. Safe, productive clothing goes with the territory. Tank tops, shorts and sandals are nice and cool to wear, but a framing job calls for a little bit more protection for the body. Good shoes or boots, jeans and a long-sleeved shirt not only protect your body on a daily basis, but also lessen the risk of skin cancer in later years.

Safety devices should be as much a part of a framer’s toolkit as a hammer. Whenever you or the people near you are hammering, sawing or using a nailer, you should be wearing protective eyeglasses. Those available today are lightweight and not uncomfortable to wear. The alternative isn’t very fun to contemplate.

Ear protection comes in various shapes and sizes. Small, soft pieces of sponge are available that are easy to stuff into the ears, are not bulky or uncomfortable and yet give good protection from loud construction noises.

Leather gloves, hard hats and knee pads my not have to worn all day, every day, but there are times when they can give you the protection you need. When you are doing a lot of sawing, especially in an enclosed place, wearing a good dust mask will help keep the saw dust out of you lungs. Meet an old carpenter with emphazemia and let him tell you what he would he would have wished he had done when he was young. If you have to work around toxic fumes or sprays, Then use a better-quality respirator.

Stay cool! Framing on a plywood deck in the hot sun can rapidly raise the body temperature. It is fairly easy for the body to run out of water on a hot day, leading to hypothermia or heat exhaustion. Avoid overheating by drinking a lot of water.

Stay aware! Turning up the radio to full volume or wearing one with headphones can distract you at a time when your full attention is needed. And be doubly careful as the workday progresses. Injuries seem to happen more often as you tire later in the day.

It makes good sense to carry a well-equipped first aid kit in you car or pickup. It doesn’t have to be a traveling pharmacy, but should contain basic items such as Band-Aids and bandages, Including a stretch bandage, sterile pads and cotton, a roll of gauze and adhesive tape, scissors and tweezers, an instant cold pack, a tourniquet and splint, iodine, sterile antiseptic wipes, antibiotic cream, an ammonia inhalant and aspirin. Its also smart to take a first-aid course from you local Red Cross chapter so you will know what to so in case someone gets injured.

Improper scaffolding is a particular problem on framing jobs and is the source of many injuries. Framers seldom need scaffolding except for a few minutes to raise a beam, sheathe a high wall or nail an otherwise unreachable spot. The temptation is to spike a block to the wall, nail on a crosspiece with a leg under it, throw on a plank and hop on. Most of the time this is cheap, fast and dangerous. Just because you work fast does not mean that you can not work safely. People are more important than profits. In the final analysis, production should always take the back seat to safety.

Plan, codes and permits

A new house comes to life because someone had a plan. Houses don’t just happen. For carpenters, the plans often come from a builder or architect, who combined their ideas and imagination on paper, joining concrete, steel, wood and other materials into a harmonious whole. Plans may come from a owner who bought a set of plans from a catalog or sketched his or her own. Wherever they come from, plans are the basic means of communication among architects, builders, carpenter, concrete contractors, electricians, plumbers and a host of other trades people. Learning how to read and interpret these drawings is an important step a carpenter must make to be able to turn ideas into reality.

Building plans are like roadmaps. If you want to drive from Florida to Alaska, for example, you look at a map knowing you can’t visualize everything you will see along the way but that if you follow the lines and symbols properly you will arrive at your destination. The problem is that not everyone finds a road map easy to read, and house plans seem even more confusing. How does one go from visualizing an outline on a flat piece of paper to building a house that can be lived in?

Some people have the ability to look at a floor plan and visualize in their mind the walls, the doors, the roof, the entire building. Others find it impossible to see anything other than lines on paper. Fortunately, you don’t have to be able to visualize the whole house in advance to be able to build it. Experience is a good teacher. Once you have built one house and seen how it goes together, you will find that the next time you look at a set of plans you will find it easier to visualize the finished house in three dimensions. With a little more experience, may begin to relate to the standard, if overstated, joke among seasoned carpenters that the only reason they need a set of plans is to make sure that they are building on the right lot.

Start by studying the plans at home. You will need to learn a whole new language of symbols and abbreviations; Orient yourself by finding out which direction is north and how the building sits on the lot. Use a marking pen to note the lengths and widths of lumber to be used and any unusual elements.

Plan scales and dimensions

Plans, like maps, are drawn to scale, and this scale is noted on the bottom of the page. The most common plan scale is a ¼ per foot marked on the bottom of the page. This means that every ¼ in the building means an actual foot on the real building. One inch, then means a total distance of 4 feet. You must know the scale because not every dimension is given on a set of plans. An unmarked wall section, for example, may measure an 1 1/8 inch. If the plans have a scale of a ¼ inch per foot , then the actual length of the wall will be 4 foot 6 inches.

Scales can be different than a ¼ inch per foot. Sometimes the scale may vary on a single page, as with a detail drawing that has been blown up for clarity. Plans for a large building may be drawn at 1/8 inch per foot to keep the size of them manageable. Big mistakes can be made assuming that the scale is always the same, so be sure to check it. A triangular architects scale will come in handy when reading plans.

Types of plans

A normal set of house plans for carpenters consists of a plot plan, foundation plan, a floor plan, a framing plan and elevations.

The plot plan gives an overall view from above, showing the shape and dimension of the property and the size and location of the building to go on it. It might also include compass direction, contours, existing streets, utilities and sometimes even the location of existing trees. It is used mainly by the general contractor to make sure that the house is properly positioned on the lot.

Foundation footings, walls and piers are shown on the foundation plan. A concrete contractor for example, will use this plan along with details to learn the depth and width of the footings. Framers often use the foundation plan to determine the elements of a wood floor system, such as the size, direction and spacing of girders and joists. If the house is going to be built over a basement, This is where to find the direction and location of the stairway. Once the floor has been sheathed, then the carpenters turn their attention to the floor and framing plans.

The floor plan gives a birds eye view of a horizontal surface. A lot of information can be crammed onto this plan. The size and arrangement of all the rooms can be determined by a quick look at the floor plan. Sometime the architect will draw separate pages detailing electrical, plumbing and heating, structural and other elements, but often much of that information will be found on the floor plan. If the house is going to be two or more stories, a separate floor plan will be drawn for each level. The floor plan may indicate the size of lumber needed for headers, posts and beams. The size and spacing of ceiling joists and roof rafters can be found here, and the direction that they will run should be indicated by a line with an arrow. Any openings through the joists, such as for the stairs, attic access or skylight, can be found on the floor plan.

A separate framing plan is a way to make floor plans less cumbersome. The framing plan can note window and door sizes, and sizes of headers, post and beam connectors and almost every other stick of wood that will be used in a building. It can indicate a shear wall location and any engineering or code requirements to help make the building better able to withstand earthquakes or high winds.

Some of the information you will need to build a house will require going to the “elevations”. Elevations are side views. They are often labeled north, south, east and west. They give complete vertical views of how the structure will appear, including the foundation, siding and trim, roof style and pitch, the length of the overhang at the eaves, and so on. A floor plan can indicate the location of windows and doors, while elevations can give their heights of the floor. Many radically different houses can be built to the same floor plan. Often those differences will be very apparent on the elevations. Interior elevations may also be given, particularly to show details of cabinets in baths and kitchens.

Section views give another perspective. Slice down through the house, just as you would through an apple, remove one half and stand back and look at the other. This is a section. It gives you a vertical view of the foundation, sill, floor joists, sub floor, and so on. A line through a house on a plan will indicate with arrows from which direction the section drawing is being viewed. These lines may have reference numbers by them, indicating the plan page on which the section will be found and the drawing number on that page.

Detail drawings give a close up view of a small or complex feature of the house. They are either placed on a page all their own or scattered on the edge of the plans. Detail drawings are normally drawn to a larger scale to give enlarged views of such things as foundations, difficult stairways, complicated cornices and elaborate post an beam connections.

A set of house plans may include a specification sheet, which spells out legal requirements, building codes, specific materials to be used, who is to do what work and exactly how the work is to be done. Various schedules will also be included with most sets of plans. The window and door schedules, for example, will indicate the quantity, size and style of the windows and doors. The floor plan may indicate each window and door with a letter or number that is referenced to the schedule. The nailing schedule spells out the quantity, size and spacing of the nails needed to construct the building.

Codes and permits
Codes and permits, and the enforcers who go with them (building inspectors) , exist to protect homeowners from unscrupulous and incompetent builders. They also exist to protect owner builders and weekend do it yourselfers from themselves. To cut costs or to satisfy personal whims, people have been known to build houses that cant withstand a minor earthquake or a good gust of wind, that are fire traps because of amateur electrical wiring or are health hazards because of shoddy materials or poor workmanship. Neighbors and future owners also deserve protection from such practices.

For these kind of reasons building departments and building codes, Though sometime a nuisance and an expense, are necessary for all of us. The ensure that a new house will be built to proper standards with appropriate materials and have adequate lighting, ventilation, insulation, fire protection and security measures. They act as a quality control for the building industry.

Once the builder has a set of plans and a lot on which to build, the next step is to go to the building department and request the proper permits that are needed. Building departments in small communities may only want to know what you plan to build, whereas in big communities may want full scale drawing and plans for review. Once the county is satisfied that the construction will be up to their specifications, they approve the plans and issue a permit to build. Approved plans are kept available for inspections and should not be used as working plans. As actual construction proceeds, many departments have inspectors that check, step by step, to see that the work is being done to code and inline with the approved plans. In such cases, for example, you wouldn’t want to cover the walls of a framed house with drywall until the inspector had seen and approved the framing, wiring and plumbing.

There is no single code for the United States. There are national codes that more or less cover specific parts of the country. But thousands of localities have adopted their own specific codes that adapt the national models to their own situations. Houses being finance by the Veteran’s Administration or the Federal Housing Administration generally must meet requirements above and beyond the local code.

When in doubt and even when your not in doubt, check with the building department or the local building inspector. They can keep you from making some very expensive mistakes. And always remember the first rule of construction: It is always cheaper to do it right the first time.

Lumber and materials

Estimating lumber and material needs on most single-family residences is fairly simple, but it does take some experience to get it right. Learning how to build a house requires that you learn about the materials that go into it. No one wants to work with building materials that are unsafe, such as paint that has lead in it, asbestos-laced insulation or flawed wood. You need to know when and where to use different types of wood. Redwood is beautiful but brittle, and it might break if it is used as a ridge beam carrying a roof load. You need to know what size lumber to use. You wouldn’t want to nail in 2x4 joists if they are not large enough to carry the load.

Materials to be used in a building project are governed to a great extent by the local building codes. A framer doesn’t have to know all of the codes, but must pay attention to what the plans specify when making up a lumber and materials list.

Once you have framed a house or two and learned how to read plans, you will be able to work up a lumber and materials list fairly easy. For framers, the list covers everything from the first sill on the foundation through the fascia board on the rafter tails, as well as the hardware needed to put them together. The list is often the responsibility of the contractor, who can make up the list himself or submit the list to the lumber yards and let them do it. Many lumber yards use computers which help make the list quickly. But making your own list give you the ability to inspect the plans closely, to note the areas that need special attention and to get acquainted to the house before you start building it. If you are buying the lumber shop around until you find the best price.

Your list needs to spell out the type, size, quantity and grade of the materials. There is no need to supply board footage, since lumber companies can make the conversions if they need to. If you don’t see lumber grades specified in the plans, check your building code; most spell out minimum grades required. Your lumber company may also have this information. For example the most common framing lumber in the west is Douglas Fir with a grade of number 2 or better.

Manufactured lumber

As dimension lumber becomes less readily available, more manufactured lumber products are being used by builders. These include common items like plywood and oriented strand board (OSB) and newer products like wooden I beam joists, such as TJI joists. These joists are made with a plywood web glued into the flanges of the top and bottom chord. They come in various lengths and have knockouts for plumbing and electrical to pass through them. Wooden I-joists are lightweight , easy to handle and can span up to 60 feet, making it possible to create very large rooms. Another advantage is that they are always strait, which means that the floors will be flat and level. Regular joists shrink faster than beams and can cause a floor to develop humps and squeaks.

A disadvantage of using wooden I-beam joists is that joist layout has to be done with more care. It is necessary to know the exact location of plumbing and heating runs, stairwells and so on. These joists are engineered units, and any cuts or notches in them can seriously weaken there structural capacity. Companies that supply these joists also supply the hangers, hardware and information on the installation, which is much like that of standard 2x joists.

Engineered beams, often made from laminated veneer lumber (LVL), come in several widths and depths up to 60 ft. long. They are available in 3 ½ inch widths, which means they can be used for headers in a 2x4 wall; they can easily be furred out 2 more inches for a 2x6 wall. Beams and headers that are made from laminated and glued lumber have been available for years and won’t twist and split like some species of solid-stock lumber.

Estimating tools

To begin making up a lumber list, you will need a couple of basic estimating tools and a set of plans. A scale tape or architects scale will allow you to translate scaled dimensions on the plans to real dimensions. A pocket calculator is dispensable for keeping your math honest.

Sills

Make the lumber list in exactly the order that it will be used; The lumber company will put the first item on the list on top when they deliver. Most often on a house with a crawl space or basement, the first pieces of lumber you’ll need are the sill plates. Specify on the list that this lumber is treated with substances that repel termites and inhibit dry rot, a fungus growth that can rapidly destroy wood. Working from the plans, measure the length of the foundation walls that will be covered by sills, add 5% extra, then divide by 16, which is the standard length of sill used by many builders, to determine the number of pieces needed.

Posts and girders

The size of girders (often 4x6) and posts (often 4x4) will be given on the plans. Measure the lengths of all girders and then write the lengths with colored pen on the plans. Girders are often laid out with a post every 6 ft., so 12 ft. and 18 ft lengths are common. Girders must be sized so that they break over a pier post so the ends can be properly supported. Writing the lengths on plans with a colored pen now will make installing them go faster when you are actually building.

If you are building over a basement, the supporting posts are usually 8 ft. long. Simply count the number you need and order them in 8 ft. 16 ft. lengths. When building over a crawl space, each post will be around 16 inches long. Count the number needed, one for each pier, multiply by 16 inches and divide by 12 to get the number of lineal feet required. Post material can be ordered in random lengths.

Joists

Floor joists must be the proper length to span the building or lap on a girder. Check all lengths and mark them on the plans. If the joists are to 16 inches on center, the easiest way to estimate the number needed is to order one per foot. The extras will be used for rim joists, double joists under parallel walls, and blocks at the lap. Some builders, especially on larger jobs, will measure the lineal length of the rim joists and block and, as a cost saver, order these from number 3 lumber instead of number 2 or better.

Floor sheathing

Floors are often sheathed with tongue and groove ply wood or OSB. Determine the number of square feet in the floor by multiplying the length of the building by the width, subtracting or adding for any offsets. Divide this figure by 32, which is the number of square feet in a 4x8 sheet of plywood and add 5%. Check the plans and or/ code for thickness and grade.

Plates

Before calculating the lumber needed for wall plates, check to see which walls are 2x6 and which are 2x4. Each should be marked on the plans with a different colored pen to make it easier to work accurately. Then measure all the walls. If you are building on a wood floor then each wall will have three plates. One on the bottom and two on the top. So simply take your measurement of wall length and triple it. If your building on a concrete slab, double the figure, keeping in mind that the bottom plate on a slab must be pressure treated. To be safe, you should add 10% to the figure for waste. You should not have to specify lengths for the plates. It is fairly standard practice for the lumber companies to ship longer, random lengths for plate stock.

Studs

Estimating the number of studs needed is easy. For 16 on center walls, simply figure one stud for each lineal foot of wall. The extras will make up corners, intersections, trimmers and cripples. For example, If you need 350 feet of sill stock, order 350 studs. If the studs are to be placed every 24 inches on center order one stud for every 2 feet an add 15% for extras. A standard stud lengths for many parts of the country is 92 ¼ inches and these studs can be delivered precut. Studs are cut to this length because it leaves room for the three plates giving you a total height of 96 ¾ inches.

Headers and cripples

Calculating the lumber need for door and window headers takes a little more time and care. Each opening has a length and header size listed on the plans. Order 4 foot of stock for a 3 foot opening and 5 foot of stock for a 4 foot opening and so on. Note by each length the size of the stock needed, like 4x4 or 4x6. Put a check on the plans at each opening as it is finished so you don’t accidentally count twice. Then add up the footage needed for each header size and order it in longer lengths. Longer headers, such as those used for a garage door, will of course require heavier stock. Some door headers may be in non bearing walls and can simply be flat 2x4s, so no extra material needs to be ordered for them.

Some builders standardize the header size, at times making headers larger than required so that most of the top cripples can be cut the same length. Most window openings in the average house are under 5 feet, for example; all the headers might be 4x6s even though a 4x4 would be adequate for some. If the headers are to be built up out of 2x stock, the length of the material required will be doubled, plus a sheet or two of ½ plywood, to be ripped and sandwiched between the two so that the finished header will be 3 ½ inches wide.

If cripples for doors and windows are to be cut on the job, plan to use scraps left over from joisting and plating and from bowed and twisted plate stock. With a little effort, a house can be built with a minimum of waste. Some builders find it cost effective, especially when building multiple units or a tract, to make up a header and cripple list for the lumber company, which then does the cutting at the yard. Some companies do this for no extra charge as a loss leader; they can use cheaper grades, and older lumber they might otherwise have to discard or cut up for firewood.

Posts and beams

Check the length and size of any beams, such as those used as a ridge to carry rafters, and the posts that they rest upon. Mark this information on the plans. Beams will sometimes be graded number 1 or select structural or be made with laminated stock. Engineered beams may be required for particularly long spans or heavy loads, so check the details carefully.

Braces

The bracing that walls require depends on local code and whether or not they will be sheathed. If you will be bracing all the walls with metal angle braces or wooden let in braces, figure one at each end and one for every 25 feet of wall. It is advisable to put a brace in every wall where it is possible. Some walls will be too short or have too many openings for a diagonal brace. If you are using wooden braces, it is best to order 12 foot 1x6s, although 10 footers will work. Metal braces are available in 12 foot lengths but 10 footers work good on 8 foot walls.

Wall Sheathing

If the walls are to be sheathed, the number of sheets needed for a one-story building is figured by taking the length of the wall space to be covered and dividing it by 4 feet, the width of each plywood panel. Pay no attention to door and window openings, except large ones such a garage doors and patio openings, There is no reason to add 5% to these measurements because the material cut out for the openings can be used to fill in. The standard length of plywood is 8 feet but in can be ordered in longer lengths.

Ceiling joists and rafter ties

Ceiling joists can be figured somewhat like floor joists, although you don’t need extras for doubles, rims and blocks. When joists are spaced 16 inches on center, you can find the number needed by dividing the length of the building by four, then multiplying the result by three and adding one more for the end joist. When they are 24 inches on center divide the building by two and add one. Note mark the different sizes that are needed for different parts of the building.

In the garage, rafter ties rather that ceiling joists are nailed in at 4 feet on center to tie the building together. These frequently need to be from wider stock like 2x8’s, because even though they carry no weight they span a long distance. Measure in 4 feet from the wall and order one for every 4 feet of wall. When rafters run at right angles to the joists in a house, they too need to be tied every 4 feet to opposing rafters. Usually this rafter tie is made with 1x6 stock.

Rafters and other roof stock

If the roof is going to be framed with traditional rafters, the number of rafters can be calculated much like ceiling joists. On simple gable roofs with rafters 16 inches on center remember to double your figure to account for rafters on both sides of the ridge. If the rafters are 24 inches on center take the length of the building in feet and add two. This will give enough stock for both sides of the ridge. If barge rafters are required then add two for each end. One way to determine the length of the rafters is to scale the fascia on the elevation. Hip and valley stock is usually 2 inches wider than the rafters.

Order enough extra stock to cut frieze blocks in between the rafters. The ridge will measure the length of the building but sometimes will have to extend beyond the building to catch the barge rafters. If this is the case then add the overhang and multiply it by two. The ridge must be two inches wider than the rafters. Order it in 20 foot lengths to make stacking the roof easier. Sometimes when the rafters are overspaned they need to be supported in the center by purlins. Make sure that you add enough purlins to comlpete the roof. Sometimes collar ties will be called out and spaced 4 feet on center for the main span.

Trusses

When roof trusses are specified, check with the manufacturer to see how much lead time is needed to build and ship your order. Often this can be three to four weeks. Trusses can be ordered over the phone, but it is best to meet with a company representitve so that no mistake is made in regard to number, style and size.

Fascia

The ends of the rafter tails are often covered in fascia board. This board should be long and strait, and of good quality material because it is exposed. Frequently it is also two inches wider than the rafter, just like the ridge. Figure out the lineal feet required and add 5% for waste and order the longest stock you can get. Some builders like to go to the elevation view on the plans, scale all the lengths of the fascia and mark them on the plan. This is a good idea especially when the barge rafters are made from fascia board, which might be longer than what you ordered and have to be spliced. It is much easier to order longer stock for the barge rafters. The plans will specify what kind of material is to be used such as rough sawn Douglas Fir, redwood, cedar or pine.

Starter Boards

When starter boards are used on rafters to cover open eaves, check the plans to determine the style and type of wood. Often it will be 1x6 pine shiplap with a v- joint. In humid areas, western red cedar is more common because it is more resistant to rot. If the overhang is 20 in., for example, it will take four boards to cover it. Measure the lineal footage of the overhang, Multiply this by four and add 10% extra. Exposed eaves can also be covered with finish-grade plywood. Again, with the 20 inch overhang, measure the lineal footage and divide by 8 ft, The length of a sheet of plywood, and by two because two twenty inch rippings can be cut from each 4 foot wide sheet of plywood.

Roof sheathing

The amount of the roof sheathing required is calculated from the square footage. Multiply the rafter length by the building length and, unless starter boards will be used, include that he is and any overhang that was created by the barge rafters at the gable end. Double this figure to cover both sides of the roof, and the proceed from there just as you did for the floor sheeting. Check the plans and/or code for thickness and grade.

Hardware

Though most commonly used framing nails are 8 penny and 16 penny box nails with a vinyl coating. The vinyl coating makes them drive easier and hold better, but it may not be a good idea to hold them in your mouth it takes about 50 pounds of 16d and 12 pounds of eightd to frame a 300 square foot house. So a typical 12,000 square foot house can be framed with about 450 pound boxes of 16 D and one box of 8d sinkers you may have to supply all the washers and nuts to attach the sill to the anchor bolts.

The plans will know whether any framing anchors are needed, such as those used on a stronger connection is required between the rim joist and the s sill, from post to beam or from rafter to plate, to hold things together in hurricanes or earthquakes. Metal angle braces are often used as permanent wall braces. Joist hangers at beams and headouts will also be needed, as will metal plate straps wherever top plates have been seriously weakened by cutting for plumbing or heating. In earthquake areas, codes often call for tiedowns, metal angles that bolt to the foundation and directly to the stud, although somewhat people say that prayer works better. In high wind areas, hurricane clips are often required. When beams or girders are built up from three or more pieces of lumber, they may need to be bolted together.

The completed list

Work carefully, check the plans, scratch your head, write it all down and submit your list with full confidence that you have overlooked something. The lumber list is, after all, an estimate of materials that will be needed for a particular job. No one expects to an estimate to be perfect, just close. Remember that overestimating can be expensive. Lumberyards will take returns, but they may charge 15 to 20% to process the lumber back into their inventory. On the other hand, if you underestimate you can always order more.

It is the lumber company's responsibility to stack the material in the order you specify and to deliver it when requested. You don't want to deal with a company that puts sill stock at the bottom of a load when this is the first item you need to begin construction. It is always important to make sure that lumber loads are dropped close to where they will be used. Hauling lumber by hand from any distance consumes time that could be better spent framing the building. Many builders will have materials delivered as needed rather than all at once, especially if there is no way to make them secure at the job site.